While energy from renewable sources such as solar and wind is nearly infinite, the resources we need to capture it are not. Solar panels, wind turbines, batteries, and power cables all contain metals. Their various properties, including toughness and conductivity, make metals uniquely suitable for renewable energy technologies. But first they must be extracted from ores that are dug up from the ground. Most mining is a dirty business. Moreover, some metals are rare or becoming depleted.

The more energy we harvest from the skies above our heads, the deeper we will have to dig for the metals beneath our feet. Because of its decentralised nature, a renewable energy system requires far larger quantities of metals than a fossil energy system. It takes a whole farm of wind turbines to replace one coal-fired power station. And since the sun and wind are intermittent energy sources, part of the energy produced needs to be stored for later use. This storage also requires metals, both for batteries and for electrolysers which convert electricity into hydrogen. The strengthening of power grids and the shift to electric mobility are further pushing up the demand for metals.

Exponential growth

The climate crisis leaves us no choice but to make a swift transition from fossil fuels to renewable energies, while saving as much energy as we can. Solar and wind power have already entered the phase of exponential growth, as have electric vehicles and the batteries that power them. This translates into a rapidly growing demand for so-called 'energy metals'. According to the European Commission, by 2030, the European Union (EU) will need up to 18 times more lithium and 5 times more cobalt than its total current consumption, to cover electric car batteries and energy storage alone. By 2050, this is forecast to increase to almost 60 times more lithium and 15 times more cobalt. (2)

Alongside the energy transition, the digital transition is a priority for the EU. It also relies on metals. Many digital innovations enhance our quality of life. Teleworking and videoconferencing have proven particularly useful during the coronavirus pandemic. Sensors, data, and algorithms allow a more sustainable use of resources, including energy and materials. But, in turn, all digital technologies require energy and materials. Despite the ethereal metaphor of ‘the cloud’, the data economy has a heavy material footprint, which includes a wide array of metals. Gains in the energy and material efficiency of devices and networks are outpaced by the exponential growth of data, which doubles every two to three years. (3)

The cleantech and digital sectors are competing for the same metals. European demand for rare earths, which are used in electric cars and wind turbines but also in digital devices (4), could rise tenfold by 2050. (5)

Responsible sourcing

Since the development of technologies and markets is hard to predict, long-term demand forecasts for specific metals are uncertain. It is clear, however, that a significant portion of the metals supply will come from outside Europe. For most metals, the EU is between 75 and 100 per cent dependent on imports. This creates risks for Europe’s security of supply and for its strategic autonomy. It also raises the issue of climate justice, given that the greatest burdens of metal mining fall on the Global South. Metals can therefore be seen as the Achilles heel of the energy and digital transitions.

Should we rethink our use of joules and bytes to save metals? How do we stop valuable metals ending up as waste? Can we procure the metals we really need in a way that is equitable for both developing countries and future generations? This dossier looks at the metals quandary from various ethical and political angles. It concludes with an Agenda for Action that charts a course towards a responsible sourcing of metals for a green and digital Europe.

The Agenda for Action was developed through a series of transnational webinars and expert meetings, as well as an online consultation, in 2021. The drafters of the Agenda would like to express their gratitude to the hundreds of experts, politicians, and activists from all over Europe and the Global South who took part in these lively discussions. They provided an abundance of ideas for tackling metals scarcity.

Click on a title to read the section

1. Three types of scarcity
2. Closing the metals loop
3. Responsible sourcing
4. Beyond extractivism
5. Strategic autonomy
6. Mining in Europe
7. Deep-sea and space mining
8. Refuse, rethink, reduce
9. Agenda for action

Footnotes